Identification and Risk Elimination of Mycotoxins
Risk Elimination of Mycotoxins
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/SJCMS2026.1.1.25Keywords:
Mycotoxin- Incidence- detoxification- EgyptAbstract
To date, 50–80% of food contaminated with mycotoxins. More than 500 type of mycotoxins have been identified, produced by different types of fungi causing financial losses to agriculture and industry. The most hazardous mycotoxins for public health include aflatoxins (AF), fumonisin (FUM), ochratoxins (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) mainly produced by Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium species. Mycotoxin contamination may occur in ripening cereals and other agricultural commodities before harvest and consequently contaminate livestock feed. Mycotoxins may also be found in animal source food like milk, eggs, cheese and meat. Several types of control measures were taken using physical, chemical and biological methods. This article reviews the incidence of mycotoxicosis in food chain in Egypt and the mechanisms of in vitro detoxification of food and animal feed products.
References
References
1. Danial E. N., Walaa A. Majrashi, Ahlam O. Bin Afif, Ebtehal S. Alamr, Entesar M. Alhatimi and Nowayer J. Alghamdi (2021). Cytotoxicity and Bioremediation of Heavy Metals by Highly Resistant Marine Bacteria. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology, 24(4): 48–72.
2. Simpson, D.R.; Weston, G.E.; Turner, J.A.; Jennings, P.; Nicholson, P. (2001). Differential control of head blight pathogens of wheat by fungicides and consequences for mycotoxin contamination of grain. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 107, 421–431.
3. Aslam, N.; Rodrigues, I.; McGill, D.M.; Warriach, H.M.; Cowling, A.; Haque, A.; Wynn, P.C. (2016). Transfer of aflatoxins from naturally contaminated feed to milk of Nili-Ravi buffaloes fed a mycotoxin binder. Animal Production Science, 56, 1637–1642.
4. Berthiller, F.; Maragos, C.M.; Dall’Asta, C. (2016). Introduction to masked mycotoxins. In: Masked Mycotoxins in Food: Formation, Occurrence and Toxicological Relevance; DallAsta, C., Berthiller, F., Eds.; Royal Society of Chemistry: London, UK. Volume 24, pp. 1–13.
5. Zhao L., Zhang L., Xu Z.J., Liu X.D., Chen L.Y., Dai J.F., et al. (2021). Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in feeds in China during 2018–2020. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 12: 74.
6. Zhang N.Y., Qi M., Zhao L., Zhu M.K., Guo J., Liu J., et al. (2016). Curcumin prevents aflatoxin B1 hepatoxicity by inhibition of cytochrome P450 isozymes in chick liver. Toxins (Basel), 8(11): 327.
7. Sun L.H., Zhang N.Y., Zhu M.K., Zhao L., Zhou J.C., Qi D.S. (2016). Prevention of aflatoxin B1 hepatoxicity by dietary selenium is associated with inhibition of cytochrome P450 isozymes and up-regulation of 6 selenoprotein genes in chick liver. Journal of Nutrition, 146(4): 655–661.
8. Abrehame, S., Manoj, V. R., Hailu, M., Chen, Y.-Y., Lin, Y.-C., & Chen, Y.-P. (2023). Aflatoxins: Source, detection, clinical features and prevention. Processes, 11(1), 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11010204
9. Zhao L., Feng Y., Deng J., Zhang N.Y., Zhang W.P., Liu X.L., et al. (2019). Selenium deficiency aggravates aflatoxin B1-induced immunotoxicity in chick spleen by regulating 6 selenoprotein genes and redox/inflammation/apoptotic signaling. Journal of Nutrition, 149(6): 894–901.
10. Lee H.J., Ryu D. (2017). Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and cereal derived food products: public health perspectives of their co-occurrence. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 65(33): 7034–7051.
11. Liu M., Zhang L., Chu X.H., Ma R., Wang Y.W., Liu Q., et al. (2020). Effects of deoxynivalenol on the porcine growth performance and intestinal microbiota and potential remediation by a modified HSCAS binder. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 141: 111373.
12. Zhang L., Ma R., Zhu M.X., Zhang N.Y., Liu X.L., Wang Y.W., et al. (2020). Effect of deoxynivalenol on the porcine acquired immune response and potential remediation by a novel modified HSCAS adsorbent. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 138: 111187.
13. Gao X., Xiao Z.H., Liu M., Zhang N.Y., Khalil M.M., Gu C.Q., et al. (2018). Dietary silymarin supplementation alleviates zearalenone-induced hepatotoxicity and reproductive toxicity in rats. Journal of Nutrition, 148(8): 1209–1216.
14. Saddiq A.A., Danial E.N., Saraf I.A. (2021). Impact of Natural Products on Developing New Treatments for Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19): Review. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 33(28B): 101–122.
15. Gao X., Sun L.H., Zhang N.Y., Li C., Zhang J., Xiao Z.H., et al. (2017). Gestational zearalenone exposure causes reproductive and developmental toxicity in pregnant rats and female offspring. Toxins (Basel), 9(1): 21.
16. Chen J., Wei Z., Wang Y., Long M., Wu W.D., Kuca K. (2021). Fumonisin B1: mechanisms of toxicity and biological detoxification progress in animals. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 149(3): 111977.
17. Tajik, H.M. Sayadi, Effects of probiotic bacteria of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus casei on aflatoxin B1 detoxification within a simulated Gastrointestinal tract model. Toxin Reviews. 41(1), 92–99 (2022
18. Jia R., Cao L.R., Liu W.B., Shen Z.Y. (2021). Detoxification of deoxynivalenol by Bacillus subtilis ASAG 216 and characterization the degradation process. European Food Research and Technology, 247: 67–76.
19. Niderkorn, V H. Boudra, D. Morgavi, Binding of fusarium Mycotoxins by fermentative bacteria in vitro. J. Appl. Microbiol. 101(4), 849–856 (2006
20. Liu, C. Zhao, .C. Liu, H. Du W, Sun J.,Zhou W. , Sun, C Biodeg radation of Ochratoxin A by two novel strains of Brevibacillus Sp. isolated from wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Food Bioscience. 54, 102847 (2023)
21. Yang X., Li F., Ning H., Zhang W., Niu D., Shi Z., Chai S., Shan A., Screening of pig-derived Zearalenone-degrading bacteria through the Zearalenone challenge model, and their degradation characteristics. Toxins. 14(3), 224 (2022)
22. Eskola M., Kos G., Elliott C.T., Hajšlová J., Mayar S., Krska R. (2020). Worldwide contamination of food-crops with mycotoxins: Validity of the widely cited ‘FAO estimate’ of 25%. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 60(16): 2773–2789. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.165
23. Miraglia M., Brera C. (2000). Mycotoxins in grains and related products. In: Nollet, L.M.L. (Ed.), Food Analysis by HPLC, Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 493–522.
24. Giray B., Girgin G., Engin A.B., Aydin S., Sahin G. (2007). Aflatoxin levels in wheat samples consumed in some regions of Turkey. Food Control, 18: 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.08.002
25. European Commission (2010). Regulation No 165/2010 of 26 February 2010, amending Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs.
26. EOSQC (2010). Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality Control, Egyptian Standard No. 7136/2010, Cairo, Egypt.
27. Madbouly A.K., Ibrahim I.M., Sehab A.F., Abdel-Wahhab M.A. (2012). Co-occurrence of mycoflora, aflatoxins and fumonisins in maize and rice seeds from markets of different districts in Cairo, Egypt. Food Additives and Contaminants: Part B, 5(2): 112–120.
28. Awad-Allah, M., Mikhael, B., AbdEL-Rahem, W. (2019). Performance of Different Rice Genotypes under Different Dates of Sowing. Journal of Plant Production, 10(12), 973-981. doi: 10.21608/jpp.2019.71515
29. Saleh A.A., El-Howeity M.A., Galal H., Abo Hagar A.A. (2020). Study On Mycotoxin Contamination For Egyptian Rice During Post Harvest Processing. Journal of Environmental Studies and Researches, 10(2): 337–347.
30. Kos J., Anić M., Radić B., Zadravec M., Janić Hajnal E., Pleadin J. (2023). Climate Change—A Global Threat Resulting in Increasing Mycotoxin Occurrence. Foods, 12(14): 2704. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12142704
31. Casu A., Camardo Leggieri M., Toscano P., Battilani P. (2024). Changing climate, shifting mycotoxins: A comprehensive review of climate change impact on mycotoxin contamination. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 23(2): e13323. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.13323
32. Kumar A., Pathak H., Bhadauria S., et al. (2021). Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes, detection, and management: a review. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition, 3: 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-021-00064-y
33. Abdel-Nasser A., Fathy H.M., Badr A.N., Hathout A.S., Baraka O.S.M. (2022). Prevalence of Aflatoxigenic Fungi in Cereal Grains and Their Related Chemical Metabolites. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 65(10): 455–470.
34. Walaa H. Khalifa, S. A. Abo Sedera, Fat, Fatma Abou-Hashim (2024).Reduction of postweaning stress by fasting regimen and probiotics supplementation and study its effects on cecal microbiota and physiological parameters of growing rabbits (108) , Issue5 1588-1594.
35. Abuzaid K.E.A., Shaltout F., Salem R., El-Diasty E.M. (2020). Microbial aspect of some processed meat products with special reference to aflatoxins. Benha Veterinary Medical Journal, 39(2): 24–28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21608/bvmj.2020.44886.1274
36. Jalili M., Jinap S. (2012). Natural occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in commercial dried chili. Food Control, 24: 160–164.
37. Zahra N., Khan M., Mehmood Z., Saeed M., Kalim I., Ahmad I., Malik K. (2018). Determination of aflatoxins in spices and dried fruits. Journal of Scientific Research, 10: 315–321.
38. Li, Y., Wang, Y., Liu, D., Deng, Y., Xie, T., Zhao, Y., & Zhang, L. (2021). Selenium ameliorates aflatoxin B1-induced uterine injury in female mice and necrosis of human endometrial microvascular endothelial cells. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 41(9), 1381–1393. https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.4120
39. Gambacorta L., Magistà D., Perrone G., Murgolo S., Logrieco A.F., Solfrizzo M. (2018). Co-occurrence of toxigenic moulds, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins in fresh sweet peppers (Capsicum annuum) and their processed products. World Mycotoxin Journal, 11: 159–174.
40. Jacxsens L., Yogendrarajah P., Meulenaer B. (2016). Risk assessment of mycotoxins and predictive mycology in Sri Lankan spices: Chilli and pepper. Procedia Food Science, 6: 326–330.
41. Pleadin J., Kovačević D., Perši N. (2015). Ochratoxin A contamination of the autochthonous dry-cured meat product “Slavonski Kulen” during a six-month production process. Food Control, 57: 377–384.
42. Karan D.D., Vukojević J.B., Ljaljević-Grbić M.V., Milićević D.R., Janković V.V. (2005). Presence of moulds and mycotoxins in spices. Proceedings of the Natural Sciences Matica Srpska, 108: 77–84.
43. Elsayed, M. M., El-Gedawy, A. A., & Hassan, W. H. (2018). Mycological evaluation of meat and meat products in Assiut city. Assiut Veterinary Medical Journal, 64(157), 1–11.
44. Al Yazeed, A., Salem-Bekhit, M. M., Alanazi, F. K., & Shakeel, F. (2015). Microbial quality of raw and processed meat in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology, 9(3), 2243–2250.
45. Mousa, W. K., Ahmed, A. A., & Farag, R. S. (2014). Incidence and identification of fungi in processed meat products in Egyptian markets. Alexandria Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 42(1), 9–15.
46. Soliman, S. M., El-Shabrawy, H. A., & Haggag, W. M. (2019). Fungal contamination of ready-to-eat meat products and detection of some mycotoxins. Benha Veterinary Medical Journal, 36(2), 97–104.
47. Abd El-Tawab, A. A., Sharaf, E. M., & El-Kazzaz, W. (2020). Fungal contamination in meat products sold in Egyptian markets. Zagazig Veterinary Journal, 48(1), 72–80.
48. Ismail, H. A., Abd El-Aziz, M. I., & El-Sherbiny, H. M. (2013). Evaluation of the microbiological quality of some traditional meat products in Egypt. Journal of Food Safety and Hygiene, 3(2), 45–52.
49. Awasti, V. K., Pal, S., & Kumar, A. (2020). Microbial spoilage of dairy products and its control. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(3), 331–337.
50. Martin, P., Fernandez-Cruz, M. L., & González-Peñas, E. (2022). Occurrence and health risk of aflatoxins and aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products. Toxins, 14(6), 437.
51. Frazzoli C., Gherardi P., Saxena N., Belluzzi G., Mantovani A. (2017). The Hotspot for (Global) One Health in Primary Food Production: Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Products. Frontiers in Public Health, 4: 294.
52. Firmin S., Morgavi D., Yiannikouris A., Boudra H. (2011). Effectiveness of Modified Yeast Cell Wall Extracts to Reduce Aflatoxin B1 Absorption in Dairy Ewes. Journal of Dairy Science, 94: 5611–5619.
53. Danezis G., Anagnostopoulos C., Liapis K., Koupparis M. (2016). Multi-Residue Analysis of Pesticides, Plant Hormones, Veterinary Drugs and Mycotoxins Using HILIC Chromatography–MS/MS in Various Food Matrices. Analytica Chimica Acta, 942: 121–138.
54. Tsakiris I.N., Tzatzarakis M.N., Alegakis A.K., Vlachou M.I., Renieri E.A., Tsatsakis A.M. (2013). Risk Assessment Scenarios of Children’s Exposure to Aflatoxin M1 Residues in Different Milk Types From the Greek Market. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 56: 261–265.
55. Sadia A., Jabbar M.A., Deng Y., et al. (2012). A Survey of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk and Sweets of Punjab, Pakistan. Food Control, 26: 235–240.
56. Campagnollo F.B., Ganev K.C., Khaneghah A.M., et al. (2016). The Occurrence and Effect of Unit Operations for Dairy Products Processing on the Fate of Aflatoxin M1: A Review. Food Control, 68: 310–329.
57. Zhang G., Li J., Lv J., Liu L., Li C., Liu L. (2019). Decontamination of Aflatoxin M1 in Yogurt Using Lactobacillus rhamnosus LC-4. Journal of Food Safety, 39: e12673.
58. Bahareh A., Kordkatuli K., Mardani H., Jafari A. (2025). A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Prevalence of Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Products in Selected Middle East Countries. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 11: e70204.
59. Adams, A., Jeffers, D., Lu, S., Guo, B., Williams, W. P., & Fountain, J. C. (2024). Effects of Different Shelling Methods on Data Variability during Field Screening for Reduced Aflatoxin Contamination in Maize. Toxins, 16(7), Article 324.DOI: 10.3390/toxins16070324
60. Abebe, E., Zewde, G., & Tolosa, T. (2023). Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Goat Milk and Associated Risk Factors. Toxins, 15(2), 99.
61. El-Gayar, M.M., El-Taher, A.M., & Hassan, A.A. (2024). Mycological and Mycotoxins Assessment of Cow Milk in Egyptian Markets. Journal of Dairy Science, 107(3), 1155–1166.
62. González-Martín, M.I., et al. (2020). Quality and safety assessment of sheep milk in Mediterranean areas. Food Control, 118, 107429.
63. El-Ziney, M.G., & Al-Turki, A.I. (2007). Microbiological quality and aflatoxin M1 content in camel milk in Saudi Arabia. Food Control, 18(6), 601–606.
64. Jayarao, B.M., & Henning, D.R. (2001). Prevalence of foodborne pathogens in bulk tank milk. Journal of Dairy Science, 84(10), 2157–2162.
65. LeJeune, J.T., & Rajala-Schultz, P.J. (2009). Food safety: Unpasteurized milk: a continued public health threat. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 48(1), 93–100.
66. Ibrahim, H.A., El-Shafei, R.A., & El-Nakeeb, M.A. (2022). Occurrence of mold and aflatoxin M1 in cheese and yogurt products in Egypt. Veterinary World, 15(4), 1021–1029.
67. Mohamed, S.M., Haggag, H.F., & El-Din, H.A. (2017). Microbial load and mycotoxins levels in cheddar cheese. Assiut Veterinary Medical Journal, 63(156), 112–121.
68. Galal, H.M., Azzam, K.M., & Farghaly, F.A. (2018). Fungal and mycotoxins contamination in Ras cheese marketed in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Food Safety, 6(2), 37–44.
69. Abou Donia, M.A., et al. (2010). Determination of aflatoxin M1 in raw milk and traditional dairy products in Egypt using ELISA. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B, 3(1), 52–59.
70. Hassan, H.F., Sharaf, O.M., & Salem, D.A. (2021). Mycobiota and aflatoxin occurrence in cheese analogue and cream substitute. Arab Journal of Biotechnology, 24(1), 45–53.
71. Shundo, L., et al. (2009). Aflatoxin M1 in milk-based infant food in Brazil. Food Additives and Contaminants, 26(4), 693–696.
72. Elzupir, A.O., & Elhussein, A.M. (2011). Determination of aflatoxin M1 in dairy products in Khartoum State, Sudan. Food Control, 22(12), 1971–1974.
73. Matumba, L., Van Poucke, C., Ediage, E. N., Jacobs, B., & De Saeger, S. (2015). Effectiveness of hand sorting, flotation/washing, dehulling and combinations thereof on the decontamination of mycotoxin-contaminated white maize. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 32(6), 960–969.
74. Braunberg, R. C., Gantt, O. O., & Friedman, L. (1982). Toxicological evaluation of compounds found in food using rat renal explants. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 20(5), 541–546.
75. Yumbe-Guevara, B. E., Imoto, T., & Yoshizawa, T. (2003). Effects of heating procedures on deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and zearalenone levels in naturally contaminated barley and wheat. Food Additives & Contaminants, 20(12), 1132–1140.
76. . Jackson, L. S., Hlywka, J. J., Senthil, K. R., Bullerman, L. B., & Musser, S. M. (1996). Effects of time, temperature, and pH on the stability of fumonisin B1 in an aqueous model system. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 44(3), 906–912.
77. Ryu, D., Hanna, A. M., Eskridge, M. K., & Bullerman, B. L. (2003). Heat stability of zearalenone in an aqueous buffered model system. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(6), 1746–1748.
78. Aziz, N. H., & Moussa, L. A. (2002). Influence of gamma-radiation on mycotoxin-producing moulds and mycotoxins in fruits. Food Control, 13(4–5), 281–288.
79. Molins, R. A., Motarjemi, Y., & Käferstein, F. K. (2001). Irradiation: A critical control point in ensuring the microbiological safety of raw foods. Food Control, 12(6), 347–356.
80. Adamović, M., Stojanović, M., Grubišić, M., Ileš, D., & Milojković, J. (2011). Importance of aluminosilicate minerals in safe food production. Macedonian Journal of Animal Science, 1, 175–180.
81. Hart, F. (2014). The use of naturally occurring minerals in animal feed. Industrial Minerals, 565, 22.
82. Yiannikouris, A., André, G., Buléon, A., Jeminet, G., Canet, I., François, J., et al. (2004). Comprehensive conformational study of key interactions involved in zearalenone complexation with beta-D-glucans. Biomacromolecules, 5(6), 2176–2185.
83. Yiannikouris, A., Kwiatkowski, S., Kudupoje, M. B., & Matney, C. (2014). Synthetic mycotoxin adsorbents and methods of making and utilizing the same. US Patent Publication No. RE45274.
84. . Zeidan, R., Ul-Hassan, Z., Al-Thani, R., Balmas, V., & Jaoua, S. (2018). Application of low-fermenting yeast Lachancea thermotolerans for the control of toxigenic fungi Aspergillus parasiticus, Penicillium verrucosum, and Fusarium graminearum and their mycotoxins. Toxins (Basel), 10(6), 242.
85. Alexander, H., Stefan, F., Othmar, K., & Hans, D. (2001). Mycotoxin detoxication of animal feed by different adsorbents. Toxicology Letters, 122(2), 179–188.
86. Liu, Y. L., Meng, G. Q., Wang, H. R., Zhu, H. L., Hou, Y. Q., Wang, W. J., et al. (2011). Effect of three mycotoxin adsorbents on growth performance, nutrient retention and meat quality in broilers fed on mould-contaminated feed. British Poultry Science, 52(2), 255–263.
87. Khan, F., & Zahoor, M. (2014). In vivo detoxification of aflatoxin B1 by magnetic carbon nanostructures prepared from bagasse. BMC Veterinary Research, 10, 255.
88. Zhao, Z. Y., Liu, N., Yang, L. C., Wang, J. H., Song, S. Q., Nie, D. X., et al. (2015). Cross-linked chitosan polymers as generic adsorbents for simultaneous adsorption of multiple mycotoxins. Food Control, 57, 362–369.
89. Mendoza, H. A., Guzman-De-Peña, D., González-Córdova, A. F., Vallejo-Córdoba, B., & Garcia, H. S. (2010). In vivo assessment of the potential protective effect of Lactobacillus casei Shirota against aflatoxin B1. Dairy Science & Technology, 90(6), 729–740.
90. Zeng, Z., Zhang, Q., & Li, Y. (2009). In vitro binding of aflatoxin B1 by lactic acid bacteria. Food Control, 20(4), 359–362.
91. Wang, Y., Zhao, L., & Ma, Q. (2015). Adsorption and removal of fumonisin B1 by Lactobacillus plantarum B7 and Lactobacillus pentosus X8. Food Control, 47, 190–196.
92. Jalili, M., Jinap, S., & Noranizan, M. A. (2011). Effect of chemical treatment on reduction of aflatoxins in contaminated pistachio nuts. Food Control, 22(7), 1003–1008.
93. Dvorák, M., & Shibamoto, T. (1990). Reduction of aflatoxin B1 in corn by various chemical treatments. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 38(3), 720–725.
94. Javanmardi, F., Zarei, M., & Hadian, Z. (2020). Evaluation of alkaline hydrolysis for aflatoxin detoxification in contaminated animal feed. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 146, 111810.
95. Alencar, E. R., Faroni, L. R. A., Soares, N. D. F. F., & Silva, W. A. (2012). Ozone as a method for controlling insects and aflatoxins in stored maize. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, 16(7), 748–753.
96. Santos, M. A. Z., Oliveira, B. R., et al. (2018). Ozone application on mycotoxins degradation in food. Food Chemistry, 269, 224–229.
97. Hanafi, D., Farag, M. R., & Abdo, W. (2022). Biological detoxification of mycotoxins: mechanisms and applications. Toxins, 14(1), 45.
98 Chlebicz, A., Śliżewska, K. (2020). Aflatoxins biodegradation by probiotic and non-probiotic strains of lactic acid bacteria. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins, 12(3), 1056–1066.
99. Fang, H., Wang, L., et al. (2020). Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus niger RAF106. Toxins, 12(8), 507.
100. Qiu, T., Luo, Q., et al. (2021). Biodegradation of aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus niger FS10. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(12), 6420.
101. Smiley, R. D., & Draughon, F. A. (2000). Preliminary evidence that degradation of aflatoxin B1 by Flavobacterium aurantiacum is enzymatic. Journal of Food Protection, 63(3), 415–418.
102. Lillehoj, E. B., & Ciegler, A. (1971). Microbial detoxification of aflatoxin B1. Applied Microbiology, 21(4), 984–989.
103. Line, J. E., Brackett, R. E. (1994). Factors affecting aflatoxin B1 degradation by Flavobacterium aurantiacum and Mycobacterium fluoranthenivorans. Journal of Food Protection, 57(4), 325–328.
104. Samuel, M., Arulselvan, P., & Subramanian, S. (2014). Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 by probiotic Bacillus subtilis UTBSP1. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 30(2), 495–505.
105. Gao, X., Ma, Q., Zhao, L., Lei, Y., Shan, Y., Ji, C. (2011). Effect of Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 on growth performance, immune function and reduction of aflatoxin residues in broilers. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 168(1–2), 79–85.
106. Xu, L., Eisa Ahmed, M., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Biodegradation of aflatoxin B1 by Bacillus shackletonii L7. Toxins, 9(10), 320.
107. Shu, X., Sun, Y., & Zhang, M. (2018). Biodegradation of aflatoxin B1 by Bacillus velezensis DY3108. Journal of Food Safety, 38(5), e12489.
108 Xia, X., Zhang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2017). Screening and identification of Bacillus licheniformis CFR1 with AFB1 biodegradation capacity. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment, 31(1), 120–125.
109 Raksha, R., Udipi, S. A., & Srinivasan, K. (2016). Aflatoxin degradation by Bacillus subtilis JSW-1. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 217, 85–91
.110. Danial, A. A., Sun, X., Wang, Y., & Ji, C. (2020). Biodegradation of aflatoxin B1 by Pseudomonas putida. Toxicon, 180, 1–8.
111. Wang, Y., Sun, X., et al. (2019). Biodegradation of aflatoxin B1 by lactic acid bacteria. Food Chemistry, 274, 578–586.
112. Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Zhao, L. (2021). Biodegradation of DON by Devosia insulae A16 and related strains. Food Chemistry, 346, 128920.
113. Zhai, Y., Zhu, Y., et al. (2019). DON degradation by soil bacterial strains. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 296, 20–28.
114. Gao, X., Ma, Q., Zhao, L., Lei, Y., Shan, Y., Ji, C. (2018). Biodegradation of deoxynivalenol by BBSH 797 and related isolates. Toxins, 10(12), 545.
115. Young, J. C., Fulcher, R. G., & Hayhoe, J. H. (2007). Transformation of DON by Eggerthella sp. DII-9. Mycotoxin Research, 23(3), 153–160.
116. Fucus, R. M., & Murphy, P. A. (2002). Detoxification of DON in animal feed by microbial enzymes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(22), 6382–6386.
117 Jia, R., Ma, Q., et al. (2021). Aspergillus NJA-1 and Bacillus subtilis ASAG 216 for DON detoxification. Journal of Food Science, 86(1), 128–135.
118. He, J., & Zhou, T. (2008). Reduction of DON by Bacillus subtilis strains. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 80(5), 907–915.
119. Ju, J., Yang, B., & Yang, M. (2019). ZEN detoxification by Bacillus subtilis. Food Control, 106, 106715.
120. Lei, Y., Zhao, L., et al. (2014). ZEN biodegradation by Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 5(1), 43.
121. Wang, Y., Ma, Q., & Ji, C. (2017). ZEN removal by Bacillus pumilus ES-21. Toxins, 9(3), 121.
122. Xu, L., Ahmed, M. E., et al. (2016). ZEN degradation by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens ZDS-1. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 233, 1–6.
123. Styriak, I., & Conková, E. (2001). Fumonisin degradation by yeast strains. Folia Microbiologica, 46(2), 83–85.
124. Gamilo, M., Santos, M. C., & Matos, A. (2000). Biodegradation of FB1 by Bacillus spp. Mycotoxin Research, 16(1), 20–25.
125. Benedetti, R., Nazzi, F., & Locci, R. (2006). Soil bacteria NCB1492 degrade FB1. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72(1), 77–84.
126. Awad, W. A., Ghareeb, K., & Böhm, J. (2013). The toxicological impacts of mycotoxins on poultry: Review. World's Poultry Science Journal, 69(1), 59–74.
127. Alshafei, A. M., Gomaa, E. Z., & Kabeil, S. S. (2017). Use of probiotics in decontaminating aflatoxins in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Applied Sciences, 17(1), 1–9.
128. Cao, H., Wang, J., Zhang, Q., et al. (2011). Enzymatic degradation of mycotoxins: Current status and future perspectives. Toxins, 3(8), 932–953.
129. Yao, H., Wang, H., Chen, H., & Zhang, Z. (2011). Influence of gut microflora on metabolism of mycotoxins in animals. Journal of Food Safety, 31(4), 501–508.
130. Yao, H., Xu, Z., & Li, Y. (2010). Aflatoxin detoxifizyme (ADTZ): A new enzyme for detoxification of aflatoxins. Food Control, 21(1), 106–110.
131. Yehia, R. S., Ahmed, M. E., & Mohamed, A. H. (2014). Manganese peroxidase production and its role in biodegradation of aflatoxin B1. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 3(3), 145–152.
132. Zhao, R., Ma, J., Li, L., & Jiang, C. (2011). Purification and characterization of a novel aflatoxin-degrading enzyme from Myxococcus fulvus ANSM068. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(6), 3492–3497.
133. Carere, J., Ma, Y., & Wang, G. (2018). Biochemical characterization of aldo-keto reductases involved in DON detoxification. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 84(6), e02700–17.
134. Wang, L., Li, P., Zhang, Q., et al. (2020). Functional identification of two NADPH-dependent reductases involved in DON detoxification. Scientific Reports, 10, 6213.
135. Karlovsky, P. (2004). Biological detoxification of fungal toxins and its use in plant breeding, feed and food production. Natural Toxins, 12(1), 1–14.
136. Viksoe, J., Olsson, L., & Tjerneld, F. (2009). Degradation of zearalenone using fungal laccase. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 45(3), 177–182.
137. Shcherbakova, L., Belyaeva, E., & Chistyakov, V. (2020). Expression of ZEN-specific lactonohydrolase in fungi and degradation efficiency. Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology, 56(1), 58–64.
138. Azam, M., Liu, Y., & Wu, A. (2019). Construction and characterization of recombinant fusion enzymes for complete degradation of zearalenone. Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, 1804.
139. Masching, S., Naehrer, K., & Dohnal, I. (2016). Detoxification of fumonisin B1 by carboxylesterase FumD in pigs and poultry. Mycotoxin Research, 32(4), 165–175.
140. Delwiche, S. R., Bean, M. M., & Graybosch, R. A. (2005). Effects of fungal infection on nutritional and chemical properties of wheat. Cereal Chemistry, 82(6), 645–649.
141. Sun, L. H., Lei, M. Y., Zhang, N. Y., Gao, X., Li, C., & Qi, D. S. (2016). Protective effects of sodium selenite against aflatoxin B1-induced immune injury in broiler chickens. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 48, 18–24.
142. Zhang, N. Y., Qi, M., Zhao, L., Zhu, M. K., Guo, J., Liu, J., ... & Sun, L. H. (2016). Curcumin prevents ochratoxin A-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis in ducks. Journal of Animal Science, 94(10), 4490–4500.
143. Ji, C., Li, L., Ma, Q. G., Zhang, J. Y., Luo, X. G., & Xu, L. (2019). Effects of modified palygorskite on aflatoxin B1 adsorption and growth performance in broilers. Poultry Science, 98(2), 706–715.
144. Klein, P. J., Buckner, R., & Burkhardt, J. E. (2002). Mechanism of butylated hydroxytoluene inhibition of aflatoxin B1 binding to DNA. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 185(2), 129–135.
145. Li, Y., Ma, Q. G., Zhao, L. H., & Guo, Y. M. (2014). Alpha-lipoic acid improves broiler antioxidant status under oxidative stress induced by aflatoxin B1. Poultry Science, 93(8), 1929–1936.
146. Grosse, Y., Baan, R. A., Ghissassi, F. E., & Straif, K. (1997). Carotenoids and cancer: A review. IARC Scientific Publications, (142), 45–79.
147. Atroshi, F., Rizzo, A., Westermarck, T., Ali-Vehmas, T., & Biese, I. (2010). The role of vitamins A, C, and E in counteracting the oxidative stress caused by ochratoxin A in broiler chicks. Mycotoxin Research, 26(1), 33–40.
148. Nagaraj, M., et al. (1994). Effect of thiamine supplementation on performance and Fusarium mycotoxin toxicity in broilers. Poultry Science, 73(11), 1749–1757.
149. Gradelet, S., Le Bon, A. M., Berges, R., Suschetet, M., & Astorg, P. O. (1998). Dietary carotenoids prevent aflatoxin B1-induced liver preneoplastic foci and DNA adducts in rats. Nutrition and Cancer, 32(1), 33–42.
150. Gao, X., Ma, Q., Zhao, L., Lei, Y., Han, J., & Ji, C. (2018). Protective effect of silymarin on zearalenone-induced oxidative stress in mice. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 57, 71–77.
151. Ledur, V. S., et al. (2020). Curcumin and silymarin supplementation modulates oxidative stress and inflammation induced by aflatoxin B1 in broilers. Poultry Science, 99(12), 6491–6500.
152. Cheng, Y., et al. (2020). Curcumin modulates intestinal oxidative stress, inflammatory response and barrier function in broilers exposed to aflatoxin B1. Poultry Science, 99(12), 6753–6763.
153. Ghadiri, N., et al. (2019). Quercetin protects bovine mammary epithelial cells against aflatoxin B1-induced cytotoxicity. Toxicon, 169, 55–63.
154. Sridhar, M., et al. (2015). Resveratrol supplementation improves growth and antioxidant status in broiler chickens during aflatoxicosis. Poultry Science, 94(8), 1807–1814.
155. Solcan, C., et al. (2013). Rhamnoides oil protects against aflatoxin B1-induced liver damage in broilers. Acta Veterinaria Brno, 82(4), 393–399.
156. Andretta, I., et al. (2012). Effect of methionine on performance and oxidative stress in pigs challenged with deoxynivalenol. Journal of Animal Science, 90(10), 3212–3220.
156. Andretta, I., et al. (2012). Effect of methionine on performance and oxidative stress in pigs challenged with deoxynivalenol. Journal of Animal Science, 90(10), 3212–3220.
157. Chen, X., et al. (2013). Glutamic acid and arginine play protective roles against DON-induced toxicity in pigs. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 97(1), 39–49.
158. Liu, N., et al. (2018). Astragalus polysaccharides alleviate immunosuppression in mice exposed to deoxynivalenol. Toxins, 10(4), 146.
159. Wang, Y., et al. (2018). Soy isoflavones protect against zearalenone-induced reproductive toxicity in female rats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 347, 26–33.
160. Lu, Y., et al. (1997). Effects of soy isoflavones on growth performance and immunity in gilts exposed to Fusarium toxins. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 69(1-3), 1–10.
161. Alshafei, A., et al. (2015). Effect of essential oils on Aspergillus flavus growth and aflatoxin B1 production. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 17(3), 590–596.
162. Luo, Y., et al. (2005). Antifungal activity of citral and its impact on aflatoxin production. Journal of Food Protection, 68(2), 287–292.
163. Yin, Y., et al. (2020). Effect of cinnamaldehyde and citric acid on fungal growth and aflatoxin biosynthesis. Food Control, 118, 107447.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Enas Mahdy, 1. Dep. of animal reproduction and A. l., Veterinary Research Institute, NRC, Giza, Egypt, 3. Dep. of Nutrition and food science, Food industry and nutrition inst. NRC, Giza, Egypt., 3. Dep. of Nutrition and food science, Food industry and nutrition inst. NRC, Giza, Egypt, 4. Dep. of Animal production, Agriculture and Biological Research inst. NRC, Giza, Egypt
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
